Mastery and Intrinsic Motivation

Every quality manager wants to build a team of avid learners who continually improve. To do that, the quality manager must first build his or her own competency in the quality field to develop personal mastery. The quality manager also must hone his or her teaching and coaching skills while leading his or her team and develop the team’s quality skills.

This creates a quandary because the quality manager’s success in developing his or her team’s quality skills is not something the quality manager can directly control. After all, learning is not something done to the learner, but something the learner does. So how can the quality manager ensure his or her team puts forth the necessary effort to learn the right things? The answer lies in mastering the skillset of management.

Management is a practice, which means mastering it requires developing skills through on-the-job experience. To develop his or her team’s skills, the quality manager must master the key skills of designing and implementing learning programs.1

How is mastery achieved?

Achieving mastery in any skillset generally requires accumulating thousands or tens of thousands of hours of deliberate practice, which can take decades.2Deliberate practice is the mental and emotional (and sometimes physical) struggle—spent mostly in solitude—completing practice activities just beyond the practitioner’s current capabilities.

What about talent? Achieving mastery doesn’t happen faster for people who are born with superior learning abilities. Most practitioners who invest the time in deliberate practice will see the resulting improvements.

The level of progress toward mastery often depends on the time the practitioner spends on deliberate practice activities.3 More advanced learning activities, better feedback and improved mental representations can help speed the process.

Motivation

Why do some people commit to such a massive investment of time and effort? One word: motivation. Practitioners who progress to the mastery level must rely on a sustaining source of motivation to endure the many hours of practice required.

Simplified views of motivation, such as pursuing pleasure and fleeing pain, do not explain more complex human behaviors, such as when people intentionally increase their discomfort and forego pleasure for a long time to achieve mastery.

Motivation generally can be classified into two types: extrinsic and intrinsic (see Table 1). Extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards and consequences, such as carrots and sticks, while intrinsic motivation is driven by a person’s internal urges in the absence of, or despite, external rewards or consequences. Extrinsic motivation is the stimulation of behavior that leads to separable outcomes while intrinsic motivation drives behavior because the activity itself is the reward.4

Whether motivation is intrinsic or extrinsic depends on its relationship to the person. For example, money is a common extrinsic motivator, but well-known businessman Warren Buffet described it as an intrinsic motivator when he said, "It’s not that I want money. It’s the fun of making it and watching it grow."5 For him, the activity served as its own reward.

Nurturing intrinsic motivation is a skill in and of itself. W. Edwards Deming identified nurturing intrinsic motivation as a key management responsibility.6 In addition, intrinsic motivation is a better predictor of school, work and physical performance than extrinsic motivation.7

From the quality manager’s perspective, developing his or her team’s intrinsic motivation to achieve mastery in statistics, quality engineering or quality auditing, for example, begins with the quality manager’s understanding of the team’s sources of intrinsic motivation.

Sources of intrinsic motivation

Many people have studied why people do what they do. In their article "Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions," researchers Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci identified autonomy, competence and relatedness as intrinsic motivational factors.8

Author Daniel H. Pink built on this idea and categorized intrinsic motivation into autonomy, mastery and purpose.9 Many of the experiments supporting these categories looked only at the effects of autonomy on someone’s intrinsic motivation to perform a simple task, such as solving an interesting puzzle for a few minutes.

But if not all intrinsic motivation is the same, being intrinsically motivated to spend a few minutes solving a puzzle is different from someone being intrinsically motivated to devote decades of his or her life to achieving mastery.

This provides useful insights but doesn’t answer the key management question: Why do people choose one path over another when investing their time, effort and resources to achieve mastery? How can this insight improve the management techniques used to increase the likelihood of someone achieving mastery?

Looking at the qualities that make humans unique in the animal world gives insight into sources of intrinsic motivation. Seeking pleasure and avoiding pain exists in animals as a survival instinct, and mammals have further developed social desires and abilities. Humans have the unique ability and drive to:

1. Link their minds with others to form networks of collective wisdom where the quality of group decisions exceeds what they are able to achieve with individual decisions alone.
2. Share their memories, insights and foresights to consciously improve themselves and others.
3. Override their immediate urges to pursue remote rewards.10

These can be described as intrinsic motivation driven by connection, contribution and gratification (see Table 2).

Connection

Connection is the desire to belong, be accepted, be in the know, understand, share and hear stories, live vicariously through heroes and grow closer through common enemies. Ryan and Deci proposed relatedness as a separate source of intrinsic motivation and described it as belongingness and connectedness with a sense of being respected.11

In their book Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Self-Motivation, Deci and Richard Flaste cautioned against autonomy with isolation or alienation over connectedness and relatedness.12 Humans use their unique capacity for mindreading—knowing what others think, believe, desire, feel or know through predictive or reactive mental tools such as empathy—to support the social connection motivation.13

A quality manager could require his or her team members to improve their personal mastery in a particular area to achieve some higher purpose, give them full autonomy to implement and disappear until the tasks are completed. Even though this would be highly autonomous, the likelihood of these actions fully motivating a team is low because it would create disconnection. Instead, the quality manager would be better served by establishing regular and genuine personal connections with the team.

Contribution

Defining purpose as an intrinsic motivator also runs the risk of misinterpretation and opens the door to disconnection. In practice, the quality manager could associate objective with purpose and assume decreeing an objective would motivate his or her team.

David Packard, co-founder of Hewlett-Packard, described management by objective (MBO) as "a system in which overall objectives are clearly stated and agreed upon, and which gives people the flexibility to work toward those goals in ways they determine best for their own areas of responsibility."14

According to Deming, the problem with MBO is "that the performance appraisal or merit rating focuses on the end product, not on leadership to help people." He suggested it be called "management by fear."15

Purpose has been variously defined as "making an impact on the world beyond the self,"16 contributing to something great and enduring17 and "the intention to contribute to the well-being of others."18 If the underlying intrinsic motivator is contribution to a purpose, this is better explained and captured by the term "contribution" than the term "purpose."

Contribution describes the sense of being needed and providing meaningful help and support to others. The intrinsic motivation to contribute can fuel the internal drive over the long term to continue improving and achieving higher levels of mastery in ways that matter.

Someone could perform the same acts of contribution to others but be driven by extrinsic motivation, such as the desire to receive praise or reward. For the very same acts of contribution, being motivated by the act of improving the outcomes of others qualifies as intrinsic motivation.

As an intrinsic motivator, contribution manifests itself through the combination of two emotions: pride and happy-for emotions.

In their book The Cognitive Structure of Emotions, Andrew Ortony, Gerald L. Clore and Allan Collins define pride emotions as those resulting from "the approval of one’s own praiseworthy action" and happy-for emotions as "being pleased about an event presumed to be desirable for someone else."19

More praiseworthiness and unexpectedness increase pride emotions. Doing more presumably desirable things for people who are deserving and well-liked yields higher happy-for emotions.

On a practical level, the quality manager promotes higher levels of intrinsic motivation by telling a team member where his or her contribution is needed and how it is impactful, and supporting that ability to contribute rather than merely stating the team member’s purpose, objective or result.

Framing a task as a genuine contribution better nurtures the source of intrinsic motivation and acknowledges the value of the individual.

The quality manager also should be aware that if a team member is the best in an area of meaningful contribution and suddenly is surrounded by others who are better, the team member’s sense of contribution will decrease. In that case, he or she would want to find a different way to contribute or rely on another source of intrinsic motivation to continue improving.

Gratification

The promise of future mastery taps into the human ability to imagine what has not been experienced and override immediate urges to pursue distant rewards. Mastery has been defined as the desire to get better at something that matters20and the sensation of "a greater command of reality, other people, and ourselves."21

Author Robert W. White identified competence as a key motivational driver and defined it as a person’s capacity to effectively interact with his or her environment.22 Deci and Flaste elaborated on competence as an intrinsic motivator by including the level of challenge required to bring a sense of accomplishment.23

The challenge qualifier provides greater insight into the true source of intrinsic motivation. Ortony, Clore and Collins defined the compound emotion of gratification as "approving of one’s own praiseworthy action and being pleased about the related desirable event." Praiseworthiness, unexpectedness and desirability all affect the intensity of gratification.24

People have sailed across oceans, climbed mountains and trekked to the poles driven, in part, by the challenges and misery encountered along the way. Surviving higher levels of danger can increase a person’s sense of accomplishment after the task is completed. Standing on top of Mount Everest, for example, feels much better after overcoming the trials and tribulations along the way than if you landed in the same spot by helicopter.

The fact that the journey wasn’t necessarily enjoyable can seemingly disqualify gratification as intrinsic motivation because the actual time spent preparing for and en route to the destination wasn’t done because the tasks were enjoyable themselves, but for some future reward.

This reward is intrinsic, however, because the high levels of effort and pain, and low likelihood of success, contribute to enjoying the moments of success after they are achieved. This delayed gratification and promise of future gratification can sustain the practitioner through unenjoyable periods as he or she moves toward success. He or she may achieve mastery or progress toward mastery driven by the external achievements along the way, but the actual source of intrinsic motivation is the promise of emotional gratification, which is internal.

Managing for intrinsic motivation

Managing intrinsic motivation is a skill. And, as with any skill, the quality manager must invest time and effort to practice, reflect and make improvements to, over the course of decades, achieve mastery.

This starts with the quality manager increasing his or her awareness of and nurturing his or her own intrinsic motivation. By understanding the nature of connection, contribution and gratification as the sources of his or her own intrinsic motivation, the quality manager is better equipped to nurture the internal drive of his or her team to learn and improve, and eventually achieve mastery.

Being knowledgeable of intrinsic motivation helps the quality manager avoid the common pitfalls of inadvertently destroying it. Encouraging internal competition or reducing the time spent building productive relationships can decrease the sense of connectedness with others.

Replacing a team member’s area of unique contribution with alternative options could come at the expense of the member’s intrinsic motivation. Implementing extrinsic rewards for activities for which team members already enjoy the promise of gratification could distract from and potentially replace the underlying intrinsic motivation.

Group success is an interdependent effort that requires productive interactions among members. Juggling the complex and dynamic realities of groups complicates the quality manager’s job. The quality manager must facilitate productive connections among team members and establish a personal connection with them so the quality manager is aware of individual members’ intrinsic motivation levels.

As situations change and contributors come and go from the team, the quality manager must be aware of the effect on the other team members. Do they make productive connections with each other? Do they see the effect of their contributions decrease because other contributors are added and thus they lose their intrinsic motivation to contribute? Has the team lost sight of the fruits of its labor?

Being aware of this possibility and looking for early warning signs of compromised intrinsic motivation will help the quality manager identify and deal with the issues before they get worse. This also should help the quality manager empathize with team members.

When mistakes happen, rather than blaming the team member for not caring or lacking intelligence or effort, the quality manager can move beyond pointing fingers to increasing intrinsic motivation by handling the situation in a supportive and respectful way. This ultimately leads to improved team development and organizational learning.

Of all of the skills a quality manager must master, managing for intrinsic motivation should be near the top of the list. By supporting deeper connections, acknowledging team contributions and enhancing gratification, the quality manager can increase his or her team’s intrinsic motivation to master the skills it needs to succeed.

The design and implementation of his or her team’s learning programs depend on the quality manager nurturing the team’s intrinsic motivation. Only an intrinsically motivated learner will make the personal sacrifices required to engage in repetitive, solitary practice to reach mastery.

References

1. Henry Mintzberg, Managing, Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2009.
2. Anders Ericsson and Robert Pool, Peak: Secrets From the New Science of Expertise, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016.
3. Ibid.
4. Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior, Plenum Press, 1985.
5. Roger Lowenstein, Buffett: The Making of an American Capitalist, Random House, 2008.
6. W. Edwards Deming, The New Economics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Press, 1994.
7. Christopher P. Cerasoli, Jessica M. Nicklin and Michael T. Ford, "Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Incentives Jointly Predict Performance: A 40-Year Meta-Analysis," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 140, No. 4, 2014, pp. 980-1008.
8. Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci, "Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions," Contemporary Educational Psychology, Vol. 25, No. 1, 2000, pp. 54-67.
9. Daniel H. Pink, Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us, Riverhead Books, 2009.
10. Thomas Suddendorf, The Gap: The Science of What Separates Us From Other Animals, Basic Books, 2013.
11. Ryan, "Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions," see reference 8.
12. Edward L. Deci and Richard Flaste, Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Self-Motivation, Penguin, 1996.
13. Matthew D. Lieberman, Social: Why Our Brains Are Wired to Connect, Oxford University Press, 2013.
14. David Packard, The HP Way: How Bill Hewlett and I Built Our Company, HarperCollins, 1995.
15. W. Edwards Deming, Out of the Crisis, MIT Press, 1986.
16. David Scott Yeager and Matthew J. Bundick, "The Role of Purposeful Work Goals in Promoting Meaning in Life and in Schoolwork During Adolescence," Journal of Adolescent Research, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2009, pp. 423-452.
17. Pink, Drive: The Surprising Truth about What Motivates Us, see reference 9.
18. Angela Duckworth, Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance, Scribner, 2016.
19. Andrew Ortony, Gerald L. Clore and Allan Collins, The Cognitive Structure of Emotions, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
20. Pink, Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us, see reference 9.
21. Robert Greene, Mastery, Penguin Books, 2012.
22. Robert W. White, "Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept of Competence," Psychological Review, Vol. 66, No. 5, 1959, pp. 297-333.
23. Deci, Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Self-Motivation, see reference 12.
24. Ortony, The Cognitive Structure of Emotions, see reference 19.

This article originally appeared in Quality Progress April 2018.

Photo by Clem Onojeghuo on Unsplash

Accelerating Learning

We all wish we could learn more quickly.  As managers we wish we could accelerate the learning of our teams.  In some ways, we cannot shortcut the process of accumulating knowledge and skills over the long term.  But as we learn how to learn, we discover that some methods of learning are better than others.

Someone recently asked why engineers should earn more than teachers.  My reply was that the two are not mutually exclusive.  In fact, any great engineering manager is also a great teacher.  A manager is only as good as their ability to teach their team.  We can take this a step further to say that the best learners do not passively get taught.  Most learning is self-learning.  The better we can teach ourselves, the better we learn.

An old proverb goes something like this, "Tell me and I forget, teach me and I may remember, involve me and I learn."  Some medical schools use the method of SODOTO, “See One, Do One, Teach One.”  If we delve deeply into this and expand upon it, we have a framework, not just for learning a concept but for accelerating the achievement of mastery.

See One

You start with observing the right approach to what you want to learn.  This could be an expert demonstrating a skill, the prevailing theory on the optimal approach, or a story of what worked.  As humans, we have added to our collective wisdom from generation to generation by passing along knowledge through story.  Stories make powerful connections to us as we learn vicariously through the experiences of others.  This is good for understanding what to do, but not necessarily how or why it was developed. 

If we are going to go beyond what is considered the best, we need to be able to advance the theory.  To do this, we want to know how we arrived at the theory.  Anyone who learns the complete history of the topic holds the advantage.  William Duggan delves into this in his book, The Art of What Works.  Researching lessons from history gives us insight into what has worked for others in the past. 

Napoleon became one of the most successful generals in history because of his extensive knowledge of the history of warfare.  Later Patton took his knowledge of the history of warfare to another level.  When the Wright Brothers decided to try to achieve heavier-than-air flight for humans, they started by researching everything they could find on the history of flight. 

When Jeffrey Katzenberg went to work at Disney in the 1980s, he discovered the archives that Walt Disney kept on making movies and telling stories.  He began to stay up at night to absorb all he could and started applying what he learned to the films that rejuvenated the Disney brand such as The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin, and The Lion King.  I highly recommend the book Disney War by James B. Stewart.

Barry Diller, former CEO of Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox, started his career in the William Morris Agency when he discovered their archives.  He spent three years devouring what was essentially the history of the film industry, which gave him an edge over anyone else his age.

When I made the career leap from financial services to manufacturing, I decided to learn everything I could about the history of quality.  That’s how I discovered Walter Shewhart, W. Edwards Deming, Joseph Juran, and Taichi Ohno, some of the people most responsible for the most important advancement in management during the 20th century – the quality revolution.  I thought I was going to learn about quality, and I ended up learning about management.

Every year I read business biographies, listen to business podcasts, and watch business documentaries.  I also read business theory to give myself some basis for interpreting all the stories I absorb.  All these stories help me weed out a lot of the bad advice that is available.  The stories also help me communicate tips and techniques to my team because I can readily give compelling examples of others who have used those techniques to great success.

I will add that one of the best ways I have found to enhance the See One stage is to take notes.  I find that taking notes with a pen and notebook works far better than electronic notes.  When I have a conversation with a client on the phone, I will take notes directly into our CRM rather than have to spend the extra time transcribing later.  When I am in learning mode, I prefer a physical notebook or journal.  For some reason, this seems to give me a closer connection to what I am writing, so I can better absorb and remember later.

Notebooks seemed to be far more common in the past than they are today.  Leonardo da Vinci, Ben Franklin, Albert Einstein, and Walter Chrysler all kept notebooks.  When I was 12, I read the biography of Robert Louis Stephenson, and learned that he carried a notebook in his pocket, so I started keeping a notebook ever since.

Do One

In this stage, you put what you learned into practice.  Management and many of the microskills that make up management are not learnable through books alone.  You must experience the thoughts, feelings, and distractions that come along with doing.  Learning negotiation by reading a book is different from feeling the adrenaline rush and shaking hands that come with going through a high-stakes negotiation where the pressure is on while the level of agreement and certainty are low. 

One of the best reasons to do is to better deal with the real pressure that comes along with doing.  I love to watch the Olympics because these people have spent years preparing for an opportunity that comes only once every four years and may never come along again for the rest of their lives.  The future path of their lives comes down to a few minutes of performance, so the pressure is high, and some can deal with it while others crumble under the pressure.  I think back to this when I feel the pressure rising in my life, and I welcome the pressure.

Doing is about experimentation.  Experimentation is also about improvement.  As a runner, I read about techniques, but until I do them I do not actually know how they feel.  I have to do it, feel it, and then get some sort of feedback that validates that this sensation equates to the optimal technique. 

Teach One

I really learn when I teach.  You could say that I learned this the hard way.  The point in my life when I hit rock bottom was when I was 20 and living in New York City with no job and $50 left in my pocket.  My parents were living in their van traveling the country, and I had no idea how to contact them.  During the end of that cold December I had walked into one retailer after another to fill out job applications, but everybody was winding down from the holidays and more likely to be laying off than hiring. 

I spoke to a friend who had directed one of the plays in which I had acted, and he told me about a teaching position at the high school where he taught.  It was for Algebra, Geometry, Earth Science, Biology, and Physics.  The other teacher had left halfway through the year, and they needed somebody.

A million reasons why I couldn’t do it raced through my head.  “But I don’t have a teaching license.”  Apparently, that was not a requirement because it was a private high school.  “But I don’t have a degree.”  He said that didn’t matter because I did graduate from an acting conservatory.  “But I never took Physics before in my life.”  He said they wouldn’t care.

If I had any other option, I never would have thrown my hat into the ring.  I had been eating less to save money, and my insecurity level was high.  But I was desperate (and hungry).  I got an interview, and I was honest about myself.  He said I got the job.  They must have had no other options either.  I had always loved math, and I had found science to be very intriguing, but I was far from being able to teach the subjects and far from being qualified to stand before some kids who were only a few years younger and portray myself as an expert. 

On the first day, I tried to hide the fact that I was in my panic zone.  Did I mention that this was an all-boys school?  Oh, yes, the energy level was high.  They were polite to the other teachers who were older and wiser.  But they were so rowdy with me that the principal made regular visits into my class.  As soon as he would enter, they would quiet down.  I survived the first day.  One day they asked me what pH stands for.  I had to look it up in the book, and somebody complained to the principal that I had to look it up in the book, so he had a talk with me about that.  Then I survived the first week.  Then I survived the first month.  Each night, I would study the lesson for the next day. 

In the beginning I had been spending a lot of time learning the topic where I had to be an expert.  I had tried repetition to learn and practiced like I would practice lines as an actor.  Then about a month into this experience something crazy happened.  As the weeks passed, that process compressed, and I jumped straight from getting introduced to a new topic to immediately teaching that topic.  I had just read something in physics, and realized I felt like an expert even though I had never known about that topic only a few minutes earlier.  This sparked a self-learning technique that I still use to this day. 

What did I do?  I read it once to get a general introduction to the idea as if it were someone else’s words.  Then I read it a second time as though they were my own words, and I was trying to explain it to someone else. 

This is a variation on an acting technique.  I had once taken an acting class with Alan Arkin who told us to first read the script with no preconceived notions.  In other words, read it first with an open mind.  Just take in the information in an accepting way.  Then you make the words your own.

Now when I come across something I like and want to absorb as a part of my learning, I repeat it in my head as if I am teaching someone else. 

If we are all learning, we are all teachers because we teach ourselves, and as we develop, we pass along our knowledge and skills onto others.  That is how we connect with others and contribute to our collective advancement.  We owe our knowledge and abilities today, in large part, to the discoveries others have made and passed along to us.  Our responsibility is to learn from our history, improve upon it, and pass it along for the next generation.  If we can accelerate not only our own learning but also the next generation’s learning, we can accelerate our collective learning.

How Winning Managers Develop Winning Teams

In my experience, nothing can derail a company more quickly and more completely than the internal group dynamics.  However, managing groups is an incredibly challenging undertaking.  Groups are complicated.  As more people join a group, the number of interrelationships and interactions exponentially increase.  A group of ten people can have 45 relationships.  Those 45 relationships can have tens of thousands of interactions throughout the year.  With more people, the group grows more vulnerable to the risk that one bad interaction will grow into one bad relationship and then spread dysfunction to other relationships.  By the time the manager realizes something is wrong, the internal toxicity could have already made its way to customers, delivering a financial blow to the company.

The manager must deal with these group issues before they have a chance to intensify and sabotage the success of the team.  These issues do not solve themselves.  They do not go away when ignored.  They fester and grow over time.  These issues reflect a lack of certain group skills.  Those group skills do not get developed without deliberate practice.  Deliberate practice to develop those skills requires full attention and great effort.

What are you doing to improve your skills in managing group dynamics?  What is your manager doing to improve their skills in group dynamics?  The manager who believes they do not need to expend great effort every week developing their skills in managing group dynamics is living in delusion.  The manager who is not racking their brain each week on how to better manage group dynamics is setting their team up for failure.  The manager who is not getting better at managing group dynamics each week is getting worse.  In the worst cases, the managers who do not push themselves out of their comfort zone and into their learning zone of managing group dynamics each week end up pulling their teams down the path of dysfunction.  Managers must work against competing forces to actively search for the current state of the group’s interrelationships, they must constantly cultivate their skills in facilitating productive group meetings, and they must forever develop the interaction skills of the team.  A lot of bad advice floats around these topics, so I am sharing what works with you below.

Probe below the Surface

People can and do hide bad relationships from the manager.  With so many interrelationships and so many more interactions among the members of the team, when something dysfunctional happens, it can fester below the manager’s radar for quite some time before it emerges.  Sometimes it has time to spread into other relationships, and the true source of the dysfunction can forever remain a mystery.  The manager must be on the lookout for red flags that something is amiss within the group.

I used to work at a large financial conglomerate.  The company had been formed through many acquisitions over the years.  Dysfunctional group dynamics were everywhere.  Some acrimonious relationships were decades old and carried on by people who had no idea how the rivalries had originated.  Some departments referred to other departments as the enemy.  Aggressive behavior and hostile interactions were the norm.  Individual relationships were even more challenging to uncover with so many people, relationships, and interactions and because people were good at hiding things from their managers.  The senior managers were either oblivious to the dysfunction or unaware of its impact on the performance and results they cared about.

Unless the manager is actively on the lookout for the truth when it comes to group dynamics, they can guarantee that they are oblivious to what is really happening below the surface.  Managers suffer from arrogance when they proclaim that everything is well with the team’s interactions.  They can never assume this to be the case because the reality is that things change so quickly and most of the truth is hidden from them, no matter how trusted and connected they are to the team.

While Ed Catmull was building Pixar into a successful company, he had to come to terms with the fact that even though he thought he had his finger on the pulse of his team, he was wrong again and again.  After being blindsided more than once by exploding issues with the group, he had to learn the hard way that the mere fact that he was the boss meant that people kept things from him, and his job was to forever work to uncover that truth.  He had to speak to a lot of people, establish connections with them, and gain their trust so they would be open and honest with him.  He had to expend great energy in asking and asking again about how things were going.

This involves real soul searching and can sometimes make management feel more like psychology.  When was the last time you asked your team how well they work together?  How many times have you asked this same question over and over again?  Were you satisfied with the answer, or did you keep asking regularly?  How comfortable are people with revealing information to you?  When you do make discoveries, do you react in ways that tell people they should not have revealed something?  If you react with anger, fear, control, or aggression you send the signal that revealing information to you incurs consequences.

Group Problems Require Group Discussions

Managing one person involves establishing a connection with that individual and developing their skills toward mastery.  Managing multiple people is completely different.  One of the rookie mistakes that new managers tend to make is that they try to manage a bunch of individuals through one-on-one interactions.  However, this neglects the power of assembling teams and groups in the first place.  Part of the purpose of assembling individuals into a group is to tap into the uniquely human ability to learn collectively.  Collective wisdom translates into a whole that is more than the sum of its parts.

I had a manager who as her team grew from one to five people, her team grew progressively more dysfunctional.  She inadvertently created dysfunction within her team by having discussions in separate one-on-one meetings with individuals about the others.  Then she would tell the others what someone else had said about them in a genuine attempt to try to resolve the issues.  However, her approach backfired, and this created a sense of paranoia among the team as people started wondering who said something bad about them to the manager.  In a more extreme example, another manager I knew had a team of over 40 people, and she did the same thing.  Looking back, I realized that this one-on-one approach was a major contributing factor to the revolt that team eventually made against her.

One of my professors gave some words of wisdom that he had learned the hard way through experience.  Every once in a while, you need to bring the team together and ask the simple question, “How well are we working together as a group?”  The first time this question is asked, people are understandably uncomfortable and hesitant to speak openly and honestly about each other while in front of each other.  But the discomfort does not mean it is wrong.  It just means that people are not used to having candid group discussions.  Having these discussions is a skill, and facilitating these discussions is a skill.  Cultivating these skills is critical to achieving productive group dynamics.

As the manager, your job is to get people to speak openly, honestly, and respectfully.  This means facilitating group discussions.  I have rarely seen managers who are experts at facilitating group discussions.  This is unfortunate because major opportunities are missed.  The facilitator engages the group to draw upon the full knowledge of the group, asks open-ended questions, and focuses the team on specific topics.  Sometimes the manager must withhold their perspective from the group, so that people feel more comfortable expressing their opinions.

I knew a manager who had grown accustomed to solving the problems of the group himself.  After coaching him through the process of group problem solving, he tried presenting the team with a current problem and asked them what they should do.  He was surprised by the insightful responses of the team.  They came up with and agreed upon a solution that was beyond anything he could have come up with on his own.

Cultivate the Interaction Skills of the Team

One of the red flags for a manager that something is wrong with the interpersonal communication of the team is when the members of the team tend to speak to the manager rather than to each other.  This tendency toward centralized communication means that the manager and the group risk losing valuable feedback on ideas proposed by members of the team.

When JFK dealt with the Bay of Pigs, his team tended to speak to him as opposed to each other, so he was unaware of how much people disagreed with what others were saying.  As a result, they moved forward with a plan that many people did not support.  Afterwards, JFK consulted with former President Eisenhower and by the time the Cuban Missile Crisis began, he began asking the members of his inner circle for opinions on proposed courses of action that others had suggested.  He also asked open-ended questions and was able to generate debate among the team to more fully explore the various options available.

The night before the Challenger space shuttle was launching on January 28, 1986, in colder-than-normal conditions, some of the engineers on the team knew the o-rings would fail at that temperatures, yet some held back from fully expressing the certainty and impact of the failure.  The management team had some inkling of concern, but failed to explore the concerns enough to cancel the launch.  The very sad outcome illustrates what can happen when groups experience interpersonal relationship and communication issues.  The shuttle blew apart 73 seconds into the flight, and all of the crew died.

We would hope that NASA learned from the incident, so it would not be repeated, but almost two decades later the space shuttle Columbia disintegrated and killed all seven astronauts.  Upon review, someone knew what would happen ahead of time, but the communication failed.  The engineers and managers involved in the Challenger incident did not seem to learn from the incident either.  Decades later, they were interviewed for various documentaries, and they all continued to blame and complain.

Fortunately, somebody did learn from the experience.  Stuart Diamond was one of the journalists who wrote about the incident, and won a Nobel Prize.  Diamond spent the next few decades putting together a process for negotiations, which he shared in his book Getting More.  I recommend Diamond’s book to everyone on my team.  He lays out an approach to negotiations based upon empathy and respect for others.  Preparation starts by writing a list assessing the problem, situation, options, and actions.  People then role playing in advance to practice for the negotiation.  People then use role reversal to play the other person in the negotiation, which gives further insights.

Role playing and role reversal are so uncomfortable that people will shy away from the exercise.  However, these are some of the most powerful negotiation tools.  Almost any interaction with another person can be considered a negotiation, and improving negotiation skills improves interaction skills, so groups with better negotiation skills are better equipped to work together.  Working effectively with others is an employee skill. Getting others to work well together is a management skill.

The manager must connect to the team, facilitate group discussions, and cultivate the team’s skills in healthy interrelationships, interconnections, and interactions to enhance team performance.  Winners can be cherry picked, but winning teams must be developed by managers who design and implement specific, detailed learning plans that include the skill of getting others to work effectively together.  The manager's key asset is the ability to increase the speed of the team learning how to learn together and building the team’s skill in translating individual learning into organizational learning.  This is how winning managers develop winning teams.

Photo by rawpixel.com on Unsplash.

Welcome to The Learning Zone: Three People Development Skills for the Manager to Master

Can you honestly say you have mastered the ability to develop skills in other people?  One of your key competencies as a manager is designing learning plans and implementing those learning plans through coaching, feedback, and mental models.  This is a skill which is so obvious when I tell people that everyone agrees, yet managers who have truly mastered this skill are a rare find.  In my experience, managers tell people what to learn, what to do, or how to do something and pretty much leave it at that, which is unfortunate because they miss out on some rich opportunities in contributing to the growth of others and in achieving some rewarding growth of their own.

To guide someone through the learning process, you want them to step into their Learning Zone.  What is the Learning Zone?  The Learning Zone is that place just beyond the Comfort Zone and before the Panic Zone.  When activities are too easy, they do not require as much effort.  People can grow bored and distracted, and learning is limited.  When activities prove too challenging, they push people to the point where panic ensues.  Aggressive behavior or pressure that is too high can arouse the fight or flight instincts, and learning is also limited.  In that sweet spot the activities push the person just beyond their current ability and require full attention and near-maximal effort.  This is where learning happens.

I was once coaching a manager who got frustrated with a more junior employee for not responding to a client issue in the way they had expected.  They lashed out at the junior employee and the conversation grew heated and escalated.  The manager wondered why the junior employee was not learning the “right” way.  It took multiple conversations to help the manager understand they had more to learn.  Their aggressive behavior elicited a defensive response, and no real learning was possible for the junior employee.  Blaming the other person for not learning is the easy way out, but learning is stifled there.  Developing the skill to be frustrated and still guide another person into their Learning Zone is key for the manager. 

Is this easy to achieve?  No, each person’s Learning Zone is unique and constantly shifting.  The Learning Zone begins just beyond the current abilities of that individual at that point in time.  As the current abilities improve, the Learning Zone moves farther out, so the Learning Zone is also a dynamic target.  The learning activities must be continuously altered for the individual to develop mastery. 

The manager must have an intimate awareness of the person’s abilities.  They must establish a deep and frequent connection to the person they are coaching, which can be a challenge in practice.  At the same time, the manager is developing their own ability to develop others.  Developing their personal skills in feedback, learning plans, and learning activities will improve their ability to develop the skills of others.

Skill #1:  Feedback – The Give and Take

Any coach must give feedback so people can adjust based on what they are doing that does and does not work.  The feedback should be honest and respectful.  If the feedback is laced with some kind of attack, aggression, sarcasm, etc., the person will more likely be distracted by the intention or delivery and miss out on the learning opportunity.  The best approach is to come from a genuine place of wanting to support the person.

I have found that starting the feedback with “You want to…” and explaining what works helps the person absorb the message.  I like following it up with “You don’t want to…”  If they have not actually done the undesirable behavior, and I want to preempt it, I might say, “Some people do this, which doesn’t work because…”  Clarifying the impact of the negative behavior helps.  Then I restate the desirable action, and I might even model it.  As much as possible, I try to find the things they did which work well and encourage them to take that farther and do more of it.

Taking feedback is a difficult skill every successful manager must master.  This is more than just listening to feedback and not getting upset, though that is important.  The true mastery of taking feedback is listening with an open mind without defending or disputing even if the other person is wrong or disrespectful.  Treat feedback as a gift even when it is not delivered that way.  A friend of mine was CEO of a non-profit and one of the board members began yelling at him and blaming him for a situation.  My friend listened silently until the board member finished, and calmly thanked him for being open with him about thoughts that others were probably thinking but too afraid to voice.  Then he could address the accusations point by point. 

The goal of feedback is to stay connected to what others think and feel about you.  By welcoming candid feedback, you improve your awareness and connection.  As the manager, you also set the example that others will follow, whether you realize it or not.  Once you achieve mastery in taking feedback, you are better positioned to guide others through the skill of taking feedback. 

The alternative is an atmosphere where issues are not addressed and fester until they explode.  Then later everyone wonders how the environment became so toxic.  A culture where people can openly share candid feedback lays the foundation for healthy and productive group dynamics. 

Not only do you need to welcome feedback, you also need to actively seek it out.  This is one of the greatest dangers a manager faces.  The higher up you are as a manager, the more you are at risk of being disconnected from what is really going on below the surface.  Probing below the surface is a very specific skill.  I recommend the manager regularly bring the team together and ask, “How are we working together as a team?”  The tendency in some groups will be to play it safe and not speak openly about issues.  The manager must break through this or risk being sidelined by team dysfunction.

Have you experienced challenges in giving and receiving feedback?  If so, what techniques have you found that work?

Skill #2:  Learning Plans – Translating Feedback into Skills

Feedback serves little use unless it leads to positive adjustment.  Each piece of feedback regarding what does not work reveals some underlying skill which requires development.  If you are receiving feedback, you may have to take the initiative to translate your feedback into needed skills.  If you are the manager giving the feedback, you will want to do this as the next step.  I prefer not to use the terms behavior or bad habits because they can sound like unchangeable actions.  Instead, I frame them as skills because they are interpreted as something which can be improved through practice.

Identifying the skills to be developed requires much more thought than just giving feedback in the moment.  I find this happens best when I am alone and need to reflect deeply on the person now and in the future.  Taking this step signifies to the person that you care enough about them to invest serious time thinking about and supporting their long-term success.  It helps frame the most negative feedback in a collaborative light for a manager / employee, mentor / mentee, teacher / pupil, coach / athlete, or master / apprentice relationship. 

This step also helps focus the feedback.  I generally start with a list of the feedback that I want to share.  The list starts as a stream of consciousness.  If I spend no time preparing for the delivery of the feedback, it will come across as scattered and confusing, so I have to spend the time organizing the thoughts.  Once I start identifying the skills that go with each piece of feedback, I end up grouping the feedback together based on the skill that will address the feedback.  For example, I once had some feedback for someone who had been aggressive with others and said some offensive things.  I categorized these together under the skill of communicating with respect.  This helped me deliver the message in a more concise way, and it helped them understand and remember the message later.

Have you ever had somebody put together a learning plan for you?  What were the best mentoring experiences you have had?

Skill #3:  Learning Activities – Building the Skills

The final component of designing the Learning Program is the list of Learning Activities.  This is where you take one skill at a time and identify an activity that will develop that skill.  I like to come up with three activities for a skill, but some skills require more while others require fewer.  You can use any format that works for you.  I use a table with three columns.  Column 1 is the Feedback.  Column 2 identifies the Skill.  Column 3 details the Learning Activities.  Most practice is solitary practice, so try to come up with Learning Activities that the person can eventually practice on their own.

For example, one employee was very capable with the technical and verbal aspects of the job.  However, his written communication was filled with grammatical errors.  I progressively gave him more challenging activities to improve his grammar skills.  First, I corrected his grammatical errors and explained them.  Next, I began having him make the corrections that I gave him.  Then I started having him find and make the corrections on his own.  Finally, I started asking him how somebody could misinterpret his message and how he could improve the specificity of his language.

The person will have to repeat the activity many times to master it.  I often prefer to introduce one Learning Activity at a time.  This can feel a little daunting to the manager because getting through the Learning Activities can take a very long time.  I once had an employee who had a single incident that translated into six areas of feedback, six skills needed, and 18 Learning Activities.  Each Learning Activity would take a minimum of weeks of repetition to master.  That meant the Learning Activities would take months or years to complete.  This is a good thing.  Development of skills is a long-term journey.

I usually only share about one Learning Activity at a time.  The idea is to not overwhelm the person.  Allow them to focus on mastering that activity before moving on to the next one.  The feedback, the skills, and the Learning Activities should be delivered in short chunks of information instead of long speeches or long meetings.  Rather than meeting for one hour once a week, five fifteen-minute meetings are more effective.  This gives the person more of an opportunity to absorb the message more completely.

The manager must master the skills of designing Learning Plans and follow through to implement those plans.  The disconnected managers of the world will just tell people what does not work or what results to get without providing the support to the team to develop those skills.  The connected manager is more engaged and takes ownership of the development of their team.

When you are interviewing for a new job, I highly recommend asking the hiring manager what specific skills they have developed in their employees.  You can follow up by asking how they developed those skills.  Do they have a solid answer, or are they just searching for something to say?  You can ask them what feedback they get from their employees.  Do they take the follow-up steps to develop their own skills?  Do they actively solicit feedback from their employees, so they can keep their finger on the pulse of their team, or do they blindly assume they are in touch with their team?  Their answers to these questions will help you understand what to expect if you were to work for them.

What skills has your manager developed in you?  If you are a manager, what specific skills have you developed in your team? 

Photo by Mathias Jensen on Unsplash.

Three Ways to Ease the Transition into Management

Have you ever seen this happen?  A new manager is promoted into a management position for the first time and they get overwhelmed and make unnecessary mistakes which stress out the people on their team.  The trial-by-fire, sink-or-swim approach to novice managers sets them and their teams up for failure.  With this approach, everyone loses.  The manager is miserable, their employees are distracted, customers are unhappy, and ultimately the company suffers.

The transition experience does not need to be fraught with panic and despair.  Yes, when you transition into management, you are embarking on a mental, emotional, social, and physical journey.  The struggles along can be taxing, but they can also be rewarding.  And if you approach the transition in the right way, you can reduce the repetition of mistakes and get much more quickly to what works.

Remove the Surprises

One of the common complaints that new managers have concerns the initial shock they have when they realize what managing really is.  They had no idea how different the responsibilities are and how bad they are at them.  Suddenly being responsible for people’s complaints, personal issues, and interpersonal conflicts can make people who felt like accepted superstars yesterday feel like rejected losers today.

These feelings are real, they are common, and they are not shared enough with new managers.  New managers are sometimes afraid to speak about these feelings of inferiority, but those who do start to discover very quickly that so many others have gone through all the same emotions.  The problem was they just did not know.

If someone handed a map of the emotional roller coaster to someone who was preparing to become a manager, that person would be emotionally prepared for the experience.  They might still experience all the same emotions but without the attendant sense that something must be wrong with them. 

They don’t just need the day-to-day, in some cases they need to hear the moment-to-moment challenges that others have experienced.  The experiences should to cover the range from new managers through experienced managers.  The stories should convey the full progression not just piecemeal experiences.  This helps people connect to the full story of the emotional roller coaster that managers go through from day one through year 20.

An awareness of what to expect is one thing.  New managers should also…

Start Developing the Skills in Advance

Management is a practice, not a profession.  A profession like science can be learned in a lab or classroom away from the actual field.  A practice like management must be learned by doing it. Much like swimming or riding a bicycle, a manager must manage to advance their skills.  However, this does not mean new managers cannot start developing their management skills before they have direct reports by tapping into the power of observation, simulation, role playing, and other forms of management.

First, to make the most of learning opportunities, new managers must learn the theories behind management.  This provides the right mental models to direct their learning.  With a lot of bad management theories out there, some guidance is necessary to filter the theories worth learning.

Observation is a learning opportunity available to anyone.  The lucky few have expert managers they can observe.  In rare instances, future managers get to shadow expert managers.  Reality shows and documentaries about expert managers are more available now than ever before.  Biographies of managers who have succeeded offer a wealth of information.  Positive examples like these offer opportunities to understand the real situations managers face and how the expert managers deal with them.

Simulations offer further opportunities to put some of those observations and theory into action without being in the real situation.  Case studies put the person into specific situations requiring decisions under pressure.  Some management classes will include role playing as a part of the education, which goes a step further to experience interpersonal dynamics in a controlled environment. 

The most effective method is to actually manage.  Management encompasses more than just having employees as direct reports.  Every person with a manager must manage up.  Negotiating with managers, supporting the manager’s learning, giving managers advice, and following up to make sure managers do certain tasks are all examples of managing up.  Managing projects is an excellent preparation opportunity and highly advisable to develop implementation skills.  Facilitating meetings that draw upon the collective knowledge of the group helps develop team management skills.  Mentoring others helps develop the skills of designing learning plans and coaching people to develop on-the-job skills.

Get Expert Feedback

The manager must get regular feedback and guidance from someone who has achieved higher levels of management expertise.  Finding the right person is key.  Getting feedback from multiple sources can be even better.  They need to have the expertise as a manager and as a developer of managers.  They need to be willing to give honest and direct feedback.  They also should be able to push you into your learning zone just beyond your current abilities.

When I need to learn something from a book, I like to get multiple books on the same topic.  Sometimes I just need to have a point repeated in different ways.  Sometimes different people have different ways of expressing the same thing, and

Implementing that feedback requires introspection and some deep reflection.  A learning notebook makes all the difference to those who do it.  Some people will ignore that advice and wonder later why they find themselves in such a struggle.  Journaling helps clarify thoughts and serves as a resource later.

One of the more challenging roles in life is management.  Just because someone is a superstar individual contributor does not mean they will make the best manager from day one.  They have new skills to develop.  Building these skills requires time, effort, and expert feedback.  Providing little to no prior support in the development of the skills a new manager needs sets them up for failure.  Preparing people in advance for the transition into a managerial role makes the experience much better for the new manager, their team, and for the organization as a whole.